Middle East Zionist militias

Did you know that the first groups classified as terrorists in the Middle East were Zionist militias?

Contrary to the dominant narrative in the West, which often associates terrorism in the Middle East exclusively with Islamism, this form of organized violence first emerged through Zionist militias that carried out bombings, terror campaigns, and systematic violence in Palestine long before 1948. These militias used terrorism as a primary tool to pressure for the creation of a Jewish state, openly defying British authority and attacking civilians and officials.

Organizations such as Irgun Zvai Leumi (Etzel) and Lohamei Herut Israel (Lehi) were indisputably terrorist groups, identified as such by British authorities and confirmed by historians through documentary evidence of their tactics, which included bombings, targeted assassinations, and sabotage. These actions constitute the earliest examples of organized political terrorism in the modern Middle East (Bell, 1977; Hoffman, 1986; Zvada & Lach, 2022).

1. Irgun (Etzel): organization, tactics, and transnational violence

Irgun Zvai Leumi was founded in 1931 as a dissident branch of Revisionist Zionism, with the explicit goal of using terrorist violence against British authorities and any entity perceived as an obstacle. J. Bowyer Bell’s work exhaustively details Irgun’s operations, characterizing it as a clandestine entity that carried out bombings, sabotage, and deliberate attacks on government facilities and civilian populations—methods that clearly fit the definition of urban terrorism (Bell, 1977). These tactics not only destabilized British authority in Palestine but also created a legacy of violence that influenced later conflicts.

Historical studies confirm that Irgun carried out bomb attacks in public areas and against British security installations during the 1930s and 1940s, resulting in numerous civilian and official casualties. Such actions cemented its reputation as a terrorist organization both locally and internationally. In response to policies like the 1939 British White Paper, Irgun intensified its terror campaigns to force the British withdrawal from the Mandate, demonstrating a calculated use of violence for political purposes (Hoffman, 1986; Zvada & Lach, 2022).

2. Lehi (Stern Gang): radicalism and targeted assassinations

Lehi, also known as the Stern Gang, emerged in 1940 as a splinter group from Irgun under the leadership of Avraham Stern. Unlike Irgun, Lehi rejected any alliance with British forces, even during World War II, and identified them as the primary enemy in the struggle for a Jewish state. Academic scholarship positions Lehi as one of the most extreme terrorist organizations of the era, responsible for high-profile political assassinations, such as that of Lord Moyne in Cairo in 1944, exemplifying its commitment to indiscriminate violence (Hoffman, 1986; Zvada & Lach, 2022).

Lehi’s strategy involved calculated terror operations against colonial authorities and public figures, aligning directly with academic definitions of political terrorism: the systematic use of violence against non-combatant targets to achieve ideological objectives (Bell, 1977; Hoffman, 1986). This radicalism not only prolonged the conflict but also set precedents for terrorist tactics in the region.

3. Haganah and the complexity of the phenomenon

Although Haganah, the largest Zionist paramilitary organization, initially presented itself as defensive against attacks on Jewish communities, historical evidence reveals its participation in offensive operations coordinated with Irgun and Lehi, particularly toward the late 1940s, when violence escalated in the Mandate. A constructivist approach highlights how Haganah, alongside Irgun and Lehi, actively contributed to the dynamics of organized political violence, challenging its purely defensive image and emphasizing its role in the establishment of Israel through methods bordering on terrorism (Çelebi, 2025; Zvada & Lach, 2022).

4. Classification as terrorism

The designation of Irgun and Lehi as terrorist groups is not a retrospective interpretation; during the British Mandate, colonial authorities explicitly classified them as such and deployed counter-terrorism operations to neutralize them. Bruce R. Hoffman’s dissertation analyzes how these groups systematically undermined British authority through assassinations, sabotage, and attacks on civilians and officials, meeting academic criteria for terrorism (Hoffman, 1986). This classification highlights the hypocrisy in narratives that ignore these Zionist origins of terrorism in the Middle East, instead prioritizing biased perspectives.

5. From Terrorists to Prime Ministers of Israel

One of the most controversial aspects of the history of Irgun and Lehi is that several of their most prominent leaders, directly responsible for assassinations, bombings, and acts of sabotage, went on to occupy the highest offices in the Israeli government after independence. Menachem Begin, leader of Irgun, oversaw operations that included bombings of British administrative buildings and targeted assassinations of officials between 1944 and 1948 (Bell, 1977; Hoffman, 1986). Among his most notorious actions was the attack on the King David Hotel in Jerusalem in 1946, which killed 91 people, including civilians, and injured more than 45 others (Bell, 1977). Despite these acts, Begin was elected Prime Minister in 1977, nearly three decades later, becoming a direct example of how leaders labeled as terrorists could integrate into state power.

Another notable case is Yitzhak Shamir, a former member of Lehi, who participated in political assassinations between 1942 and 1947, including those of British officials and settlers perceived as enemies of the Zionist cause (Hoffman, 1986; Zvada & Lach, 2022). Shamir was part of the team that planned and carried out the assassination of Lord Moyne in Cairo in 1944, a high-profile act aimed at intimidating British authorities and pressuring them for Jewish independence (Hoffman, 1986). Later, Shamir served as Prime Minister in two terms, from 1983 to 1984 and from 1986 to 1992, highlighting the paradox of an individual with a documented history of systematic political violence rising to lead the state.

These cases demonstrate that the transition from violent militants to central political figures was not an exception, but rather a feature of Israel’s state-building process. The reintegration of Begin, Shamir, and other former radical combatants raises uncomfortable questions regarding the legitimacy of the methods employed, the historical reinterpretation of their actions, and the official political memory. Moreover, it illustrates how systematic violence can be rehabilitated—or even celebrated—within a national context, depending on the political objectives achieved (Bell, 1977; Hoffman, 1986; Zvada & Lach, 2022).

Conclusion

Historical examination confirms that Irgun and Lehi were indisputably the first terrorist groups in the Middle Eastern context, employing systematic political violence for strategic purposes during the British Mandate of Palestine. Academic literature, detailing their leaders, tactics, and impacts, firmly situates them in the history of organized terrorism in the 20th century, preceding entities that emerged after the establishment of Israel and challenging myths that minimize their violent legacy (Bell, 1977; Hoffman, 1986; Zvada & Lach, 2022; Çelebi, 2025).

References

Bell, J. B. (1977). Terror out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi, and the Palestine Underground, 1929–1949. St. Martin’s Press.

Çelebi, E. (2025). A constructivist approach to the roles of Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi in the establishment of Israel. Terörizm ve Güvenlik Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(1), 1–14.

Hoffman, B. R. (1986). Jewish terrorist activities and the British government in Palestine, 1939–1947 [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Oxford.

Zvada, Ľ., & Lach, J. (2022). Bloody years of the Jewish insurgency in British Mandatory Palestine 1939–1948: From the White Paper to the State of Israel. Vojenské rozhledy, 31(3), 121–136.

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